Background Information
Below is a brief history of several key researchers who studied problem solving, along with the theories they developed.
Edward L. Thorndike (1874 - 1949)
Thorndike developed puzzle boxes to test animals, usually cats, by observing their ability to problem solve escaping the box to reach a treat. He determined that learning to problem solve was largely based on trial-and-error, and believed this applied to humans as well. He called this the "Law of Effect," which states, "Of several responses made to the same situation those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort to the animal will, other things being equal, have their connections to the situation weakened, so that, when it recurs, they will be less likely to occur. The greater the satisfaction or discomfort, the greater the strengthening or weakening of the bond." |
This video shows how a Thorndike puzzle box experiment worked.
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John Dewey (1859 - 1952)
Dewey relied on everyday experiences to determine his theories, and admired the physical sciences for explaining, predicting and finding solutions to practical problems. Dewey believed that problem solving occurred naturally through a sequence of steps. First a problem is noticed through present experience, possible solutions come to mind, relevant data is observed, a hypothesis is formed, acted upon, and then tested. This article provides a summary of Dewey's book, "How We Think."
How We Think: John Dewey on the Art of Reflection and Fruitful Curiosity in an Age of Instant Opinions and Information Overload by Maria Popva |
Gestalt Psychologists
(German: Gestalt - "essence or shape of an entity's complete form") of the Berlin School is a theory of mind and brain positing that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies. The phrase "The whole is greater than the sum of the parts" is often used when explaining Gestalt theory.
(German: Gestalt - "essence or shape of an entity's complete form") of the Berlin School is a theory of mind and brain positing that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing tendencies. The phrase "The whole is greater than the sum of the parts" is often used when explaining Gestalt theory.
Wolfgang Köhler (1887 - 1967)
Kohler observed how chimpanzees solve problems by placing bananas out of reach and watching how the chimpanzee would retrieve the banana through use of boxes or sticks. He determined that, contrary to Thorndike's findings, the chimpanzees did not use trial-and-error, but had insight and proceeded in a purposeful manner to solve the problem. The following link is an excerpt from Kohler's book The Mentality of Apes (1925) and explains his objections to Thorndike's research. Kohler's Objections to Thorndike's Puzzle Box Approach |
This video shows footage from Kohler's original experiments as well as several more recent experiments with chimpanzee problem solving.
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This video explains how Duncker's candle problem experiment was administered and the results.
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Karl Duncker (1903 - 1940)
Duncker introduced the concept of functional fixedness, and defined it as a, "mental block against using an object in a new way that is required to solve a problem." The Candle Problem, his most well known experiment provided participants with a candle, box of matches and tacks. The participants were told to attach the candle to a wooden door. To solve the problem, they needed to attach the matchbox to the door with the tacks, and then use the box as a platform for the candle. A Harvard Business Review article regarding issues companies face due to functional fixedness. The Cognitive Bias Keeping Us from Innovating by Andy Zynga |
John D. Bransford & Barry L. Stein
Bransford and Stein published a book called The Ideal Problem Solver: A Guide for Improved Thinking, Learning and Creativity in 1984, which outlined a model with five steps (identify, define, explore, act, look), and showed how problems fit into and could be solved by using this model. Their approach is similar to Dewey, and is part of the basis for the steps outlined in this tutorial.